Editing Eastern Prickly Pear (section)

== Confirmed Colonies ==

Through field exploration, I have confirmed the existence of ''O. humifusa'' colonies in the following locations.  Where applicable, GPS tracklogs and photographs are supplied.

=== Metacomet Colony (Plainville) ===

The Metacomet Colony is a relatively small colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' that can be found on traprock ridge in Plainville, Connecticut near Pinnacle Hill.  The colony derives its name from its close proximity to the Metacomet Trail, which runs within ten feet of the cacti.

==== Background Information ====

The general location of a colony of ''O. humifusa'' living in Connecticut was documented in an online article by Stephen Wood (creator of the website [http://www.ctmuseumquest.com Connecticut Museum Quest]) on October 6, 2007<ref name="ctmqpricklypear">Wood, Stephen. "Section 8: The Good, The Bad, And The Ugly." Connecticut Museum Quest. N.p., 6 Oct 2007. Web. 18 Apr. 2012. <http://www.ctmuseumquest.com/?page_id=1055>.</ref>.  Wood reported finding these cacti along the Metacomet Trail in Plainville, Connecticut, however he did not supply a precise location.  The article was accompanied by photographic evidence.  Further research seems to suggest that this colony was known to at least a few individuals as early as 2005.

==== Exploration ====

===== April 15, 2012 =====

On April 15, 2012, I conducted a field exploration along a section of the Metacomet Trail in Plainville that followed the same route taken by Wood during his 2007 hike.  Within approximately 1/4-mile of hiking, I discovered a sandy, sun-baked ledge adjacent to the trail upon which there were several ''O. humifusa''.  In all likelihood, this colony is the same one that Wood documented five years earlier, owing to the apparent health of these cacti.

During that same field exploration, I carefully explored several other ledges (over the course of approximately 1.25 miles) which seemed to present a habitat similar to that of the ledge with the confirmed cactus colony.  I was unable to document any further colonies of ''O. humifusa'' along the Metacomet Trail.

==== Status ====

[[File:Prickly-pear-plainville.jpg|thumb|Member of the '''Metacomet Colony''', found on a ledge along the Metacomet Trail in Plainville, CT]]My field exploration has identified a single ledge along the Plainville-section of the Metacomet Trail upon which a colony of ''O. humifusa'' currently lives.  This colony is known to have existed for at least five years and seemed, upon examination, to be relatively healthy.  Although many ledges with a similar habitat can be found along nearby stretches of the Metacomet Trail, my explorations have led me to conclude that there are no further colonies in the area.

==== Concerns About Preservation ====

The colony of ''O. humifusa'' identified along the Metacomet Trail is apparently healthy, but it is relatively small and confined to a single ledge that is easily accessible.  Thus, the colony (and the very existence of ''O. humifusa'' in the area) is potentially subject to severe impact by natural or human disturbance such as wildfires, extreme weather conditions, incidental tree fall, foot traffic by hikers and unlawful specimen collection.  Any one of these factors, or any combination of them, could weaken, deplete or destroy the cactus colony.

==== Colony Location and Statistics ====

The Metacomet Colony is located in Plainville, Connecticut at 41.672165° , -72.831497°.

<ul>
<li>To view this location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.672165,%20-72.831497 click here].</li>
<li>To download the GPS tracklog of this exploration (KML  format), [[Media:Metacomet-Trail-Pinnacle-Rock-Area-(Prickly-Pear-Cactus).kml|click here]].</li>
</ul>

Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:

<ul>
<li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~399 feet above sea level</li>
<li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Basalt</li>
<li>'''Habitat Type:''' Inland Cliffs/Mountain Peaks <ref name="habitat-types">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref>
</li>
</ul>

=== Milford Point Colony (Milford) ===

The Milford Point Colony is a large colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' living within the Smith-Hubbell Wildlife Refuge, an 8-acre parcel of preserve land adjacent to the Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point.  The colony derives its name from the Audubon sanctuary (which, in turn, derives its name from a common term for the peninsula in Milford, Connecticut).

==== Background ====

On a website dedicated primarily to gardening with native plant species, an article about ''Opuntia humifusa'' briefly mentions that the cactus "grows naturally in Connecticut along the coast. You can see it at the Milford Point Coastal Audubon Center along the boardwalk."<ref name="eklund">Teresa. "Prickly Pear Cactus." Eklund Native Species Garden. N.p., 26 May 2009. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://eklundgarden.blogspot.com/2009/05/prickly-pear-cactus.html>.</ref>  Known formally as the Coastal Center at Milford Point, the preserve is owned and managed by the Connecticut Audubon Society and is comprised of an 8.4-acre protected barrier beach in Milford, Connecticut.<ref name="audubonmilfordpoint">"The Coastal Center at Milford Point." ''Connecticut Audubon Society''. Connecticut Audubon Society, n.d. Web. 23 Apr 2012. <http://www.ctaudubon.org/coastal-center-at-milford-point/>.</ref>

==== Exploration ====

===== April 28, 2012 =====

On April 28, 2012, I conducted a field exploration of the Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point during which I explored the relatively small nature preserve for ''Opuntia humifusa'' which, based upon my previous research, were likely to found along the beach boardwalk.  This exploration involved a very short walk from the parking area to the boardwalk, as well as a brief off-trail survey of the area in which the cacti were discovered.  In total, my route covered approximately 0.29 miles.

Congruent with the claims discovered during my research, ''O. humifusa'' were visible from the short boardwalk which traverses a series of dunes and terminates at the seashore.  In many cases, these plants were only one to two feet from the boardwalk, unobstructed by any railings.

Although the boardwalk offered access to a few cacti, it was clear that other cacti could be found deeper in the dunes which were obstructed from view by various trees and shrubs.  In order to obtain a rough estimate of the total number of cacti on the property, I left the boardwalk and conducted a survey of all those portions of preserve which could reasonably be accessed by foot.  In total, I was able count 19 individual ''O. humifusa'' spread out over an area of approximately 1/2 acre.  Since my investigation of the dunes was not exhaustive, it is fair to say that my count is strictly a conservative estimate of the total cacti growing at Milford Point.

==== Status and Description ====

My field exploration of the Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point has revealed that ''Opuntia humifusa'' are a "featured" attraction at this preserve.  The colony of cacti is not only exceptionally easy to find, but the boardwalk that traverses the dune area seems to have been constructed, in part, with the specific intention of exposing preserve visitors to wild cacti.

The colony of ''O. humifusa'' on Milford Point covers approximately 1/2-acre and includes at least 19 plants, however the actual number of plants is likely to be at least 10% higher than this estimate.  Most of these cacti were "individuals", which is to say that there were very few which had formed large clonal clusters.  

These findings stand in stark contrast to those of the colonies that I have discovered on inland ridges, which are generally isolated to a very small area (less than 50 square feet) and tend to be centered upon a clonal cluster, with "individual" plants accounting for less than half of the bio-mass of each colony.

The cacti colony at Milford Point was interspersed amongst dune shrubs, short coniferous trees and a variety of herbaceous plants.  In some cases, ''O. humifusa'' were found growing around the bases of trees and shrubs, while in other instances they were growing upon clearings in the dune with a certain margin of open sand between other plant life.  This, again, stands in stark contrast to inland mountain sites, upon which ''O. humifusa'' grows in areas with an exceptionally low diversity of trees and plants.

==== Concerns About Preservation ====

Of all of the sites at which I have observed ''Opuntia humifusa'', the Coastal Center at Milford Point offers the easiest access to these plants while at the same time providing the greatest level of protection.

While the cacti colonies in Plainville and New Haven are found upon state-owned property such as West Rock Ridge State Park and the Metacomet Trail, these parcels of land are very large and protective legislation is nearly impossible to routinely enforce.

The Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point, while providing similar protective regulations, encompasses a very smaller parcel of land (less than 9 acres) upon which it is considerably more practical to conduct regular assessments of the colonies health.  Thus, I am confident that the colony of ''O. humifusa'' at Milford are relatively safe under the protection and monitoring of Audubon Center staff.

==== Colony Location and Statistics ====

The Milford Point Colony is located in Milford, Connecticut at the Audubon Coastal Center at Milford Point.  The coordinates of the colony within the Audubon Center are 41.175451° , -73.100733°.   

<ul>
<li>To view this location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.175451,%20-73.100733 click here].</li>
<li>To download the GPS tracklog of this exploration (KML  format), [[Media:West-Rock-Ridge-State-Park-South-Prickly-Pear-Cactus.kml|click here]].</li>
</ul>

Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:

<ul>
<li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~14 feet above sea level</li>
<li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Sand (composed primarily of quartz)</li>
<li>'''Habitat Type:''' Coastal Sand Dunes <ref name="habitat-types">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref>
</li>
</ul>

=== West Rock Colonies (New Haven & Hamden) ===

There are three colonies of ''Opuntia humifusa'' found within the boundaries of West Rock Ridge State Park, which extends south to New Haven and north to Hamden.  The West Rock South Colony is located in the southern half of the park within New Haven.  The West Rock North Complex is comprised of two colonies which are located in the far-northern end of the state park.

==== Geographic & Historic Overview ====

West Rock Ridge is a prominent traprock ridge in Connecticut that runs in a north-south direction, extending roughly 5 miles from Hamden to northern New Haven and skirting the borders of Woodbridge and Bethany along its western edges.  Although West Rock Ridge is now almost entirely contained within the 1,800-acre West Rock Ridge State Park, this was not always the case.  West Rock Ridge, as a protected parcel of land, began in 1826 as a small 50-acre city park in New Haven (along the southern end of the ridge).  By 1975, the State of Connecticut had established West Rock Ridge State Park on areas of the ridge which were not owned by New Haven.  By 1982, New Haven's city park on West Rock Ridge had grown to encompass roughly 600 acres of land, all of which was donated to the state that year to be incorporated into West Rock Ridge State Park.  Further parcels of land were added to the state park whenever they became available, swelling the park grounds to the roughly 1,800 acres that it encompasses today.<ref name="historywestrock">"History of the Park." ''West Rock Ridge Park Association''. West Rock Ridge Park Association, n.d. Web. 7 May 2012. <http://westrockpark.wordpress.com/history/>.</ref>

==== Background Information ====

Although plenty of records exist which suggest the presence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' on West Rock Ridge, very few of these records offer any specific information as to where the cactus can actually be discovered.  This was of particular concern because West Rock Ridge State Park is over 5 miles long, extending from New Haven in the south to Hamden in the north (and even straddling the borders of Woodbridge and Bethany on its western edges).  Launching precisely targeted explorations of West Rock Ridge required the extensive study of satellite imagery, which permitted me to focus upon those areas which are not heavily forested and, thus, have at least some measure of potential to be ''O. humifusa'' habitat.

The oldest evidence that I've thus far discovered which attests to the existence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' in New Haven, Connecticut dates to the mid-1800s.  [[A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts, Volume 2]], published in 1846, very briefly mentions that the ''O. humifusa'' "is said to be found at New Haven, in Connecticut."<ref name="forestsmass">Emerson, George Barrell. ''A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts''. 2. Boston: Dutton and Wenworth, State Printers, 1846. 424. Print. <http://books.google.com/books/reader?id=7c4VAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader>.</ref>  No specific information is provided concerning the whereabouts of a colony.

In a modern written overview of West Rock Ridge in New Haven, Connecticut, the ''West Rock Ridge Park Association'' notes that the ridge offers an "extraordinary biodiversity of plants and animals from prickly pear cactuses to 230 species of birds".<ref name="aboutwestrock">"About West Rock." ''West Rock Ridge Park Association''. West Rock Ridge Park Association, n.d. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://westrockpark.wordpress.com/about/>.</ref>  The text does not offer any further mention of ''O. humifusa'', nor does it offer photographic evidence.

Further supporting this claim, an article was published on the website of the [http://msa2012.net Mycological Society of America] which details a group hike throughout West Rock Ridge scheduled to take place in 2012 during the organization's annual meeting.  Although the organisms of interest to mycologists are primarily mushrooms and other fungi, the article nonetheless states that hikers in the West Rock Ridge area "occasionally [find] prickly pear cactus".<ref name="myco2012">"Foray." ''Mycological Society of America 2012 Meeting''. Mycological Society of America, n.d. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://msa2012.net/schedule/fieldtrips.php>.</ref>  No further mention of cacti is made in this article.

The compelling evidence of the presence of ''O. humifusa'' on West Rock Ridge comes in the form of a photograph taken by Michael Hornak in 2011.  The image portrays ''O. humifusa'' in bloom and the geo-tag data pinpoints the location of the plant to be at the far northern end of West Rock Ridge State Park in Hamden, Connecticut.<ref name="hornak-photo">Hornak, Michael. ''Blooming on the Fourth''. 2011. Photograph. Flickr. Web. 1 May 2012. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/31522928@N08/5902419015/>.</ref>

==== Exploration ====

A preliminary examination of satellite imagery of West Rock Ridge revealed several areas along the southern end of the park where habitat suitable for ''O. humifusa'' potentially existed.  Because the southern end of the ridge has a greater concentration of areas that aren't covered with thick forest, my earliest exploration focused on this region.  Exploration of the northern end of the ridge was conducted later after the discovery of Hornak's ''O. humifusa'' photograph.

===== April 28, 2012 =====

I conducted a field exploration of the southern half of West Rock Ridge State Park on April 28, 2012, during which I carefully investigated all of the target areas in that region that were identified in my preliminary studies of satellite imagery.  This entailed a hike of approximately 3.08 miles and the route variously included hiking on foot trails and along the park road.  Extensive bush-whacking was required in order to explore all of the target locations, many of which were between 20 and 100 feet off of the road or established trails.

Target areas of exploration primarily included west-facing and south-facing ledges along the precipices of the southern half of West Rock Ridge.  Most of these areas were devoid of trees or, at least, very sparsely forested.  A thorough investigation of these target areas revealed no presence of ''Opuntia humifusa''.

However, I did succeed in locating a healthy colony of cacti in an area which was not within my original list of target areas.  The colony was located on a relatively small clearing within the forest towards the interior of the ridge.  This clearing consisted of an isolated, slightly elevated dome of exposed bedrock which enjoyed full sunlight and supported a bare minimum of herbaceous plants.  The colony included one large clonal cluster of cacti as well as a number of individual cacti along the outer perimeter of the clearing which were at various stages of maturation.

===== May 5, 2012 =====

A second field exploration was conducted on May 5, 2012 and involved an investigation of approximately 1.09 miles on the far northern extent of West Rock Ridge in Hamden, Connecticut.  This exploration revealed several areas, some quite large, where bedrock was exposed at the surface and there was a bare minimum of tree growth.  However, most of these "obvious" areas yielded no findings.  Eventually, I ventured to the steep, terraced precipices on the eastern side of the ridge and succeeded in discovering a large clonal colony of ''O. humifusa''.  I quickly noticed that this uppermost cluster was only the tip of the iceberg, as further clonal clusters could be seen growing on several lower ledges descending the face of the ridge.

After thoroughly documenting this colony, I began moving northwards and checking similar habitat for the presence of another colony.  I succeeded in discovering another colony approximately 200 feet further north of the first.  This colony shared a similar character with the nearby find, where a several clonal clusters could be found on successively lower-elevation ledges.

==== Status and Description ====

===== West Rock South Colony =====

[[File:West-rock-south-colony-opuntia.jpg|thumb|'''West Rock South Colony''', found on the southern half of West Rock Ridge in New Haven, CT]]My first field exploration identified a small, isolated, exposed patch of bedrock within the forest on the southern half of West Rock Ridge in New Haven, Connecticut upon which a colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' currently lives.  I have not found any explicit evidence that the location of this colony has been previously documented.

The colony, which I have named '''West Rock South Colony''', consists of a large, clonal patch covering approximately 25 to 35 square feet.  Within 5 to 10 feet of this clonal center were approximately 6 or 7 individual outlying "satellite" cacti.

There is a bare minimum of herbaceous plants on the cacti habitat, as would be expected.  The most prominent additive feature of this colony is a large, gnarled, many-trunked juniper, specifically an Eastern Red Cedar (''Juniperus virginiana'' var. ''virginiana'').  The large clonal mass of cacti can be found tightly skirting the base of this tree.

===== West Rock North Complex =====

My second field exploration identified two very large colonies of ''Opuntia humifusa'' on the east-facing cliffs at the far northern end of West Rock Ridge in Hamden, Connecticut.  These colonies are situated barely 200 feet from each other and are rather significant inland colonies in Connecticut, primarily for their striking demonstration of circumstances in which ''O. humifusa'' can effectively expand its range via barochory (gravity) as opposed to zoochory (animal-assisted seed dispersal).  Although these two colonies were originally given separate names ('''West Rock Shepard Colony''' and '''West Rock Dunbar Colony'''), they were later collectively renamed the '''West Rock North Complex''' after changes to my naming conventions enacted in July 2012.

[[File:West-rock-dunbar-colony-opuntia.jpg|thumb|left|'''West Rock North Complex''', found on the northern end of West Rock Ridge in Hamden, CT]]Both of these colonies exhibit a structure which is supremely demonstrative of a scenario in which ''O. humifusa'' can successfully colonize surrounding habitat.  The uppermost clonal clusters of each colony are found at an elevation of roughly 500 feet.  Interestingly, numerous further clonal clusters can be found immediately below on successive terraced ledges that extend as far as 50 to 100 feet down the face of the ridge.  My observations suggest that the clonal clusters at the highest elevations are most likely the oldest, progenitor clusters and that, as cladodes and fruits broke free of these older plants, they would tumble down the face of the ridge.  Whenever these disconnected cladodes or fruits came to rest on a lower ledge, they would take root or germinate and produce a new clonal cluster.  Over a number of years then, these colonies became quite large and can be described as "cascading" down the face of the ridge.

I counted at least a dozen clonal clusters and as many as two dozen individual cacti in the southernmost of the two colonies.  The northernmost has fewer individual plants but its clonal clusters, of which I counted roughly ten, tended to be larger.  But the most impressive characteristic of this complex is the role which gravity has played in expanding the size of the colonies over time.  Both of these colonies probably began as a single, high-elevation clonal cluster on the uppermost ledges of West Rock Ridge.  With the help of gravity to carry broken cladodes and fruits to lower-elevation ridges, a process known as barochory, those two original colonies each expanded their mass by at least 1000%.  Indeed, the West Rock North Complex offers a rare demonstration of just how remarkably effective ''O. humifusa'' can be in expanding its local range without the assistance of animals as intermediaries, at least so long as the terrain is such that gravity can be harnessed to widely distribute fruits and broken cladodes.  No where else in Connecticut have I discovered a colony which clearly demonstrates the enormous potential of ''O. humifusa'' to harness barochory.

The West Rock North Complex was found in close association with Eastern Red Cedar (''Juniperus virginiana'' var. ''virginiana'') just as the considerably smaller West Rock South Colony.

==== Concerns About Preservation ====

The West Rock South Colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' (identified on the southern half of West Rock Ridge) is apparently healthy but, as is typical of inland colonies, it is relatively small and confined to a single rocky outcrop.  Despite the fact that this colony is only about 60 feet off of the southern park road, it is unlikely that this colony is at risk of easy discovery.  There aren't any parking areas within close range to the colony, meaning that park traffic is not likely stop in the immediate vicinity.  In addition, there are no trails that lead to the rocky clearing, so hikers aren't likely to happen the colony.  Thus, there is a bare minimum of concern about the preservation of the ''O. humifusa'' colony at this site and a high probability that it will persist well into the future.

The colonies of the West Rock North Complex (identified on the northern end of West Rock Ridge) are exceptionally healthy and quite large.  Although hiking trails run within 40 or 50 feet of the clonal clusters at the highest elevations, the cacti would be difficult to spot unless one were expressly looking for them.  Furthermore, the "cascading" quality of these colonies means that, even if harm were to come to the more accessible high-elevation clonal clusters, those clusters on the lower ledges would still flourish by virtue of their relative inaccessibility.  There is little concern about the preservation of this ''O. humifusa'' complex.

==== Colony Locations and Statistics ====

===== West Rock South Colony =====

The West Rock South Colony is located in New Haven, Connecticut at West Rock Ridge State Park.  The coordinates of the colony within the park are 41.335736° , -72.964300°.

<ul>
<li>To view this location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.335736,%20-72.964300 click here].</li>
<li>To download the GPS tracklog of this exploration (KML  format), [[Media:West-Rock-Ridge-State-Park-South-Prickly-Pear-Cactus.kml|click here]].</li>
</ul>

Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:

<ul>
<li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~429 feet above sea level</li>
<li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Unknown (likely Basalt)</li>
<li>'''Habitat Type:''' Inland Cliffs/Mountain Peaks <ref name="habitat-types">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref>
</li>
</ul>

===== West Rock North Complex =====

The West Rock North Complex, comprised of two distinct colonies, is located in Hamden, Connecticut at West Rock Ridge State Park.  The coordinates of the southernmost colony are 41.398765° , -72.945621°, while the coordinates of the northernmost colony are 41.398970°, -72.944514°.

<ul>
<li>To view the location of the southernmost colony in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.398765,%20-72.945621 click here].</li>
<li>To view the location of the northernmost colony in  Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.398970,%20-72.944514 click here].</li>
</ul>

Pertinent statistics concerning the location of the complex include:

<ul>
<li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' Ranges from ~508 feet to ~430 feet above sea level</li>
<li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Basalt</li>
<li>'''Habitat Type:''' Inland Cliffs/Mountain Peaks <ref name="habitat-types">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref>
</li>
</ul>

=== Short Beach Colony (Stratford) ===

The Short Beach Colony is a large colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' spread generously throughout about one to two acres of flat, sandy scrubland fronting Long Island Sound at Short Beach Park in Stratford, Connecticut.  The colony is named after the beach park in which it was found.

==== Background ====

Unlike all of my other finds (as of May 2012), I had no prior research indicating the existence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' within Stratford's Short Beach Park.  While my research did reveal that ''O. humifusa'' was known to live in Stratford, Short Beach Park was not among the known locations that I was able to dig up.  Thus, when I decided to investigate this area, it was purely on a whim.  I simply knew that ''O. humifusa'' was documented as living nearby (within only a mile or so along similar beachfront land), so I thought that I might investigate.

==== Exploration ====

===== May 9, 2012 =====

On May 9, 2012, I conducted a field exploration of Short Beach Park in which I focused exclusively upon a swath of sandy scrubland found within.  This exploration involved roughly 1/2-mile of walking in total, during which I attempted investigate all of the potential habitat areas in the immediate vicinity.

Although I uncovered no material in my research which suggested the presence of ''Opuntia humifusa'' at Short Beach Park, I was surprised to discover the first specimen within only a minute or two of searching.  Subsequently, I discovered numerous other specimens spread out over roughly an acre.

These cacti are actually rather easy to find, which may seem odd considering that no literature, articles or photographs of them can be found online.  There are probably three factors which contribute to this lack of publicity.  First, Short Beach Park is generally open only to residents of Stratford, meaning that the park doesn't get nearly as many visitors as if it were open to surrounding towns.  Second, those Stratford residents that do visit the park probably tend to be interested primarily in visiting the sand beaches, not the scrubland behind them.  Finally, one of the most common herbaceous plants that I found in association with this colony was ''Toxicodendron radicans'' (Poison Ivy), a highly-allergenic plant which is readily identifiable and generally avoided at all costs by humans.  Some combination of these three factors is responsible for the relative "secrecy" of this colony despite the fact that it is easily accessible and found in extremely close proximity to heavily-visited beachfront.

Nonetheless, there is a trail matrix weaving throughout the scrubland which I doubt is of natural origin, so there must be some measure of human tending/landscaping to the area, as well as at least some regular foot traffic.  Thus, this colony is probably well-known locally, but simply hasn't been publicized for one reason or another.

==== Status and Description ====

[[File:Short-beach-colony-opuntia.jpg|thumb|One of many individual cacti in the '''Short Beach Colony''', found at Short Beach Park in Stratford, CT]]My field exploration of Stratford's Short Beach Park has revealed a large colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' growing on dry, sandy scrubland behind the sand beach.  Despite being little-known throughout the state, this colony is probably rather well-known to those Stratford residents that frequent the park since it is easily accessed from high-traffic beach areas.

The Short Beach Colony contains specimens that are spread throughout an acre (or more) of land, with most specimens being at least 15 to 20 feet apart.  I counted a total of 14 ''O. humifusa'' specimens: four (4) large specimens, five (5) small specimens and five (5) specimens of intermediate size.  Although there is always some measure of inaccuracy with these counts, owing to the clonal growth habits of ''O. humifusa'', this count is rather thorough.

Interestingly, there did not seem to be any significant clonal clusters at all, a finding which is congruent with the Milford Point Colony and which contrasts sharply with colony structures found on inland ridges.  Although I did count four "large" ''O. humifusa'' specimens at Short Beach, these were relatively tall plants which, unlike clonal colonies that I've observed, still maintained a tight, individual structure with a discernible basal center.

The habitat area at Short Beach is exceptionally similar to the habitat area at Milford Point.  At both of these habitat areas, the ''O. humifusa'' specimens are interspersed amongst dune shrubs and low-growing herbaceous plants along with a few coniferous trees, though the Short Beach habitat exhibited a lower density of coniferous trees and higher density of shrubs than the Milford Point habitat.  Also congruent with Milford Point, ''O. humifusa'' did not seem to have a preference for any particular margin from larger shrubs; some specimens were found growing right at the base of shrubs, while others were found in more open, exposed areas amongst sparse, low-growing herbaceous plants.

The Short Beach Colony exhibited a similarly high diversity of associated plant life as the Milford Point Colony.  At least one of those herbaceous associates was ''Toxicodendron radicans'' (Poison Ivy), which was exceptionally prevalent.  However, because ''T. radicans'' can be found in a wide range of habitats where there are no cacti, it cannot yet be considered anything more than an incidental associate (that is, I do not yet consider ''T. radicans'' to be a useful indicator species).

==== Possibility of Human Introduction ====

Research into the history of Short Beach Park reveals that, as late as the early 1970s, there were numerous cottages there and the northeastern section of the park was being used as a town dump of sorts.<ref name="lordship-history">"Short Beach and Half Moon Cove 1946 to Present." ''The History of Lordship''. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 May 2012. <http://www.lordshiphistory.com/ShortBeach2webpage.html>.</ref>  The last of the cottages were demolished in 1972 after the town emerged as the victor of a 15-year debate over whether the cottagers or the town held ownership over the land.  At some point afterwards, between 1972 and 1973, Short Beach was developed as a town park.

Given these findings, there is some measure of question as to whether or not the ''O. humifusa'' that can be seen today at Short Beach were introduced by the park designers.  On one hand, these cacti are on ideal habitat and would seem to be natural in origin.  On the other hand, it is entirely possible that this habitat area did not exist prior to park development.

At this point, I do not possess enough information to make any conclusions in this regard.

==== Concerns About Preservation ====

Although the Short Beach Colony is easily accessible and in close proximity to areas that likely receive a good deal of foot traffic, I have minimal concerns about preservation.  The plants are relatively inconspicuous unless you are looking for them and they seem to have fared very well thus far.  I cannot think of any reason why this would change in the foreseeable future.

==== Colony Location and Statistics ====

The Short Beach Colony is located in Stratford, Connecticut at Short Beach Park.  The colony is spread out over a large area (approximately one acre), so it is not possible to provide pinpoint coordinates that are sufficiently representative.  Suffice to say, the westernmost ''O. humifusa'' specimen is located at  41.1638° , -73.1093°, while the easternmost specimen is located at 41.1648°, -73.1090°.

<ul>
<li>To view the westernmost location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.1638,%20-73.1093 click here].</li>
<li>No GPS track log was recorded for this exploration.</li>
</ul>

Pertinent statistics concerning the colony location include:

<ul>
<li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~5 feet above sea level</li>
<li>'''Surficial Geology:''' Sand (composed primarily of quartz)</li>
<li>'''Habitat Type:''' Coastal Sand Dunes <ref name="habitat-types">Habitat type is categorized using the Habitats Classification Scheme (Version 3.0) defined by the ''International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources''. <http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes/habitats-classification-scheme-ver3>.</ref>
</li>
</ul>

=== Ingham Hill Colony (Old Saybrook) ===

A single colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' can be found on a rocky forest glade beside a powerline cut in northern Old Saybrook, Connecticut.  There is no formal parking area for the powerline cut, but it can be accessed on foot through a row of trees on the western side of Essex Road (Rt 153) in Westbrook, Connecticut.  To be clear, the ''O. humifusa'' colony is not on the powerline cut.  Rather, it is roughly 200 feet south of the powerline cut in the nearby forest.  The colony is named after a series of three, non-connected roads in the vicinity of the colony which are all peculiarly named Ingham Hill Road.

==== Background Information ====

[[File:Preserve-map-rt153-area.jpg|thumb|Detailed map of proposed development area showing location of ''O. humifusa'' colony]]The first document I discovered attesting to the existence of an ''Opuntia humifusa'' in Old Saybrook came in the form of a newspaper article published in the ''Shoreline Times'' on December 28, 2010.  The article discussed an on-going controversy over the development of a golf course and residential homes within a coastal forest of nearly 1,000 acres (the only unbroken forest of that size left along Connecticut's coast), describing a recent walkthrough of the proposed areas of development.  During the walkthrough, a "large patch of prickly pear cactus, indigenous to the area and listed as a plant of Special Concern...was found on the Westbrook site".<ref name="shorelinetimes">Gamble, Ann. "Another go-round for Preserve." ''Shoreline Times'' n.d., n. pag. Web. 27 May. 2012. <http://www.shorelinetimes.com/articles/2010/12/28/news/doc4d1a676bbefcd804749323.txt?viewmode=fullstory>.</ref>

Because the ''Shoreline Times'' article did not provide very specific location information, more research was in order.  Initially, I was only able to turn up the minutes of an Old Saybrook Planning Commission meeting (January 5, 2011) which, despite referencing the presence of ''O. humifusa'' somewhere in the planned development area, still failed to provide specific location information.<ref name="os-minutes">Town of Old Saybrook. Old Saybrook Planning Commission. ''Planning Commission Minutes 1/5/2011''. Old Saybrook: 2011. Web. <http://oldsaybrookct.virtualtownhall.net/pages/oldsaybrookct_pc/OldSaybrookCT_PCMinutes/2011/S02E0A808>.</ref>

Research for this site continued sporadically over the course of three weeks, with other documents surfacing that made mention of ''O. humifusa'' without citing a specific location.

Finally, I discovered the website of the Alliance for Sound Area Planning (ASAP), an organization dedicated to the protection of the aforementioned 1,000-acre forest.  As part of its mission to educate concerned citizens about the development project, ASAP offers a full compilation of all of the documentation related to the proposed development in Old Saybrook.  Within the site plans for the development, the location of the ''O. humifusa'' colony is marked for the purpose of ensuring that the species is responsibly addressed during the proposed construction.<ref name="asap-ct-docs">"Documents Relating To The Preserve". ''Alliance for Sound Area Planning''. Alliance for Sound Area Planning, n.d. Web. 28 May 2012. <http://asap-ct.org/documents-relating-to-the-preserve/>.</ref>  According to the map, the colony could be found about 0.5 miles west of Essex Road (Rt 153) within approximately 200 to 300 feet from a powerline cut in the forest.

==== Exploration ====

Although the ASAP-hosted map of the Old Saybrook development area does pinpoint the location of ''O. humifusa'', the map itself is somewhat difficult to interpret due to the inclusion of planned roads that do not currently exist.  Thus, an examination of satellite imagery was conducted to identify all of the rocky glades in the vicinity which could potentially serve as ''O. humifusa'' habitat.  I found approximately five (5) glades that were worth exploring.

===== May 27, 2012 =====

On May 27, 2012, I conducted a field exploration (~1.5-mile loop hike) of rocky forest in northern Old Saybrook.  The forest was accessed on foot from Essex Road (Route 153) in Westbrook, Connecticut via a powerline cut.  This exploration focused upon five (5) rocky glades within the forest, each within close range of the mapped colony of ''O. humifusa'' identified on proposed development plans for the area.

I succeeded in finding a colony of ''O. humifusa'' upon one of the five rocky glades previously identified.  Surprisingly, other rocky glades which I had identified, and which offered similar habitat, yielded no further evidence of the presence of ''O. humifusa''.

==== Status and Description ====

[[File:Ingham-hill-colony-o-humifusa.jpg|thumb|'''Ingham Hill Colony''', found on a sunny forest glade in the northern section of Old Saybrook, CT]]My field exploration in Old Saybrook revealed a single colony of ''O. humifusa'' living upon a rocky bald within a thick forest.  Named the '''Ingham Hill Colony''', it is comprised of what appears to be a single, large clonal cluster of approximately 20 to 30 square feet.

Associated herbaceous vegetation was restricted to sparse grasses and perhaps other inconspicuous low-growing plants.  As with all inland ''O. humifusa'' colonies discovered (as of May 28, 2012), ''Juniperus virginiana'' (Eastern Red Cedar) was a close associate.  The colony was essentially growing upon a rocky bald surrounded by a ring of ''J. virginiana''.

In quite a few ways, the Ingham Hill Colony is of special importance to further understanding Connecticut's fragmented population of ''O. humifusa''.  The colony can be found growing at an elevation of approximately 140 to 150 feet AMSL.  Previously, every colony I had documented was found either on coastal scrubland at an elevation between 5 and 15 feet AMSL, or upon rocky ridges at an elevation of between 330 and 550 feet AMSL.  To date, the Ingham Hill Colony is the only colony I have observed at this intermediary elevation.  This proves that my earlier deduction, that inland ''O. humifusa'' favors elevations from 350 to 550 feet AMSL, is not necessarily true.

In addition, the composition of the soil upon which the Ingham Hill Colony is growing is also quite exceptional in juxtaposition to all other previously-documented inland colonies of ''O. humifusa''.  According to the Soil Survey of the Connecticut, the Ingham Hill Colony is growing upon '''Charlton-Chatfield Complex''' (Soil Type 73) which is sub-classified as "15 to 45 percent slopes, very rocky" (Soil Type 73E).  This soil type, which is derived variously from granite, schist and gneiss, is a notable diversion from the Holyoke soils (Soil Type 78) upon which all other inland colonies of ''O. humifusa'' have been discovered, indicating that the cactus is not likely to have any particular affinity for soil derived from basalt, diabase and gabbro, as previously believed.  However, this soil type does coincide with other habitat requirements of ''O. humifusa'', being well-drained and "very strongly acid to moderately acid".

==== Concerns About Preservation ====

On one hand, the Ingham Hill Colony is guaranteed protection from potentially invasive development because its presence has been thoroughly documented during site surveys for a proposed golf course.  This means that if any future development plans should come to pass, the Ingham Hill Colony will be responsibly handled and appropriated protected.

Unfortunately, the more serious problem faced by the ''O. humifusa'' of the Ingham Hill Colony is that of forest succession.  Tall deciduous trees tightly crowd the perimeter of the rocky outcrop upon which the colony is growing.  Assuming that these trees will continue to grow taller and fuller, extending branches into the gap in the canopy, they will inevitably shade out the ''O. humifusa'', first rendering them incapable of flowering and eventually robbing them of sunlight altogether.  This chain of events, should it occur, will serve to eliminate the Ingham Hill Colony in perhaps as little as 10 years.

Judging by the plentitude of stone walls on the forest floor, it is safe to say that the entire area of the modern forest was in use as pasture land until at least the late 1800s.  The colony of ''O. humifusa'' likely appeared within a decade or two after the pasture was abandoned.  At that time, the only trees in the immediate vicinity of the colony would have been the coniferous ''Juniperus virginiana'' (Eastern Red Cedar), known to be a hardy pioneer species.  Because ''J. virginiana'' is relatively low-growing on rocky soils, these trees would have posed no serious threat to the sunlight requirements of ''O. humifusa''.  Aerial photography from 1934 shows that the area of the modern-day forest was, at that time, still a patchy scrubland which would've been quite conducive to ''O. humifusa''.  The vegetation of this scrubland habitat would've continued to thicken after the 1930s, though.  In time, probably between the late 1940s and early 1960s, taller deciduous trees began to dominate the land.  Currently, even the ring of ''J. virginiana'' surrounding the colony is being shaded out by the deciduous canopy which is nearly twice as tall and growing more dense each year.

Based upon my examination of many ''O. humifusa'' colonies in the state, and considering the decidedly shade-intolerant habit of ''O. humifusa'', it is my belief that the Ingham Hill Colony is doomed to be shaded-out within the coming decade.  To the best of my knowledge, the loss of the Ingham Hill Colony would represent the extirpation of ''O. humifusa'' in Old Saybrook.  However, the plight of the Ingham Hill Colony also provides crucial insight into the severe decline of ''O. humifusa'' throughout the state since the early 1900s.  In all likelihood, extinct colonies that were once known to live inland in towns such as Scotland and Burlington probably suffered the same fate as what seems to lie ahead of the Ingham Hill Colony.  That is, those colonies initially grew upon old, rocky fields and pastures which initially provided excellent habitat for ''O. humifusa''.  In time, as succession took place turning pasture into meadow and meadow into forest, the ''O. humifusa'' would inevitably have been shaded-out and disappeared from the landscape altogether.  For instance, tt is possible that the ''O. humifusa'' of the Ingham Hill Colony are the last remaining descendants from a colony which was once much larger and more wide-spread throughout the vicinity in past decades.

==== Colony Locations and Statistics ====

The Ingham Hill Colony is located in the northwestern section of Old Saybrook, Connecticut.  The coordinates of the colony within the forest are 41.3072° , -72.4165°.   

<ul>
<li>To view this location in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.3072,%20-72.4165 click here].</li>
</li>
</ul>

Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:

<ul>
<li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' ~145 feet above sea level</li>
<li>'''Soil Type:''' Charlton-Chatfield Complex, 15 to 45 degree slopes, very rocky (Soil Type 73E)</li>
<li>'''Bedrock Geology:''' Monson Gneiss (Omo)
</ul>

=== Westwoods Colony (Guilford) ===

Initial attempts at locating this colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' proved both frustrating and futile, with roughly 3 miles of hiking throughout the terrain revealing no presence of the plant despite plenty of seemingly excellent habitat.  However, armed with the foreknowledge that a colony was found there as late as 2010, I conducted a second exploration of Westwoods nearly two months later and was successful in documenting the largest inland colony of ''O. humifusa'' in the state.

==== Background Information ==== 

In a blog article on [http://hikethegiant.blogspot.com| A Walk Across the Giant], the author related a story of his hike throughout West Woods in Guilford, Connecticut, noting that his hiking party came upon a large colony of ''Opuntia humifusa'' on a ledge beside power lines<ref name="westwoods">Colleran, Jim. "Westwood Trails, Guilford." A Walk Across the Giant: Day Hikes Around Connecticut. N.p., 26 Sep 2010. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://hikethegiant.blogspot.com/2010/09/westwood-trails-guilford.html>.</ref>.  This article was published in September 2010 and includes photographic evidence of the find.

==== Preliminary Assessment ====

Initial examination of satellite imagery of Westwoods revealed no shortage of rocky terrain with minimal growth of shade trees.  Many of these rocky balds, however, were clearly within a powerline cut that slices through the northern half of the woodlands.  Because these power lines are most likely relatively recent in origin, it was unlikely that the cactus colony would be found there.

However, the rocky terrain revealed by the powerline cut was also evident in occasional patches of exposed, rocky outcrops that can be seen within the forest using satellite imagery.  These areas offered the ideal habitat for ''O. humifusa''.

==== Exploration ====

On April 28, 2012, I conducted an extensive investigation of a good deal of the potential cactus habitat in the eastern end of Westwoods.  Over the course of a 3.1-mile exploration, I came upon numerous locations which seemed to present very promising habitat.  Surprisingly, however, I was unable to locate any trace of ''O. humifusa''.

On June 27, 2012, I conducted a second exploration of Westwoods, this time focusing only upon those rocky balds that I had not previously explored two months earlier.  This time I was successful in locating a sizable cactus colony, which was to be found upon a long, narrow rocky bald just north of the powerline cut.

==== Status ====

My second field exploration at Westwoods revealed a very large colony of ''O. humifusa'' living upon a long, narrow rocky bald that sits atop an otherwise forested hill.  I have named these cacti the '''Westwoods Colony''' in acknowledgement of fine efforts of preservation and trailblazing that have produced the Westwoods Trails.
[[File:Opuntia-westwoods.jpg|thumb|In late June, Guilford's '''Westwoods Colony''' can be seen in full bloom with large, yellow flowers.]]
The Westwoods Colony habitat is a long, narrow, exposed bald of solid rock, running on a roughly east-west axis, on top of a hill in the northern portion of Westwoods.  The colony itself is rather linear in its distribution, forming a thick, patchy row of plants that spans roughly 320 feet along the outcrop.  Walking the entire area, I was able to count roughly 25 distinct or semi-distinct clonal clusters ranging from small clusters of only a few square feet to larger clusters upwards of 20 square feet.  In addition, countless individual "satellite" plants could found scattered around the clonal clusters, some even growing with little more than 1/4" of dried lichen as substrate.  The bio-mass of cacti in this colony is impressive, to say the least, especially considering that the rocky outcrop is nearly devoid of trees such that one that can fully survey the extent of these plants from a single vantage point at the highest elevation of the ledge.

The exposed ledge was tightly bordered by dense broadleaf forest, but the ledge itself was rather bare.  The only associated tree life living directly upon the cacti habitat consisted of three or four ''Juniperus virginiana'' (Eastern Red Cedar).  The presence of these trees further cements ''J. virginiana'' as the most significant indicator species of inland ''O. humifusa'', being found at every inland colony/complex location thus far documented.

Perhaps the most unique characteristic of the Westwoods Colony is the degree to which it has claimed such a large portion of habitat on the rocky ledge where it is found.  Most inland colonies of ''O. humifusa'' are subject to very restrictive swaths of habitat, such as a tiny forest glade or a small rocky outcrop, where the plant has limited opportunities for expanding its claim.  Westwoods Colony, on the other hand, is situated upon a rather large rocky bald and it is interesting to observe that ''O. humifusa'' has taken advantage of nearly every square foot of suitable terrain available.  This aggressive expansion demonstrates just how effectively an ''O. humifusa'' colony can expand provided that has ample space on conducive habitat.

Also of note is the elevation at which the Westwoods Colony can be found.  The Westwoods Colony is one of the few colonies that can be found at an intermediate elevation, significantly higher than coastal colonies and significantly lower than colonies growing upon ridge tops further inland.  The Ingham Hill Colony in Old Saybrook, the first colony to be discovered at such a mid-level elevation and the only other of this type besides the Westwoods Colony, possesses a similar elevation in the range of ~140 feet AMSL.

The composition of the soil upon which the Westwoods Colony is growing is congruent with most inland colonies, being primarily a rocky outcrop of basalt and other typical associated minerals.  According to the Soil Survey of the Connecticut, the Westwoods Colony is growing upon '''Rock Outcrop-Holyoke Complex''' (Soil Type 79) which is sub-classified as "3 to 45 percent slopes" (Soil Type 79E).  This soil type is listed as primarily consisting of bare, surficial rock outcrops (which is consistent with my observations), with soils derived from Holyoke basalt providing the bulk of the loose substrate.  The colony area is tightly framed by areas designated as Soil Type 78C to the east and Soil Type 78E to the west, both of which are essentially identical to Soil Type 79E with the exception that Holyoke-derived soils dominate over bare rocky outcrops.  Directly to the the southwest of the colony area, within the corridor of the powerline cut, the soil type is designated as '''Wilbraham and Menlo Soils, Extremely Stony''' (Soil Type 6).  This soil type, too, is primarily derived from basalt, but also shale and sandstone.  The exceptionally poor drainage offered by this substrate is probably why the land was chosen for use as a powerline cut, being essentially useless for any other type of development.

==== Colony Location and Statistics ====

The Westwoods Colony is located in the northwestern section of the Westwoods Trails in Guilford, Connecticut.  The long, linear colony begins at 41.286718°, -72.716262° at the eastern end of the ledge and spanning west-northwest for approximately 320 feet to 41.287186°, -72.717182°.

<ul>
<li>To view this location (eastern end as mentioned above) in Google Maps, [http://maps.google.com/?q=41.286718,%20-72.716262 click here].</li>
</li>
</ul>

Pertinent statistics concerning the location include:

<ul>
<li>'''Elevation of Colony:''' Ranges from ~125 to ~145 feet above sea level</li>
<li>'''Soil Type:''' Rock Outcrop-Holyoke Complex, 3 to 45 percent slopes (Soil Type 79E)</li>
</ul>

=== Pleasure Beach Park ===

Legend.<ref name="pleasebeachlegend">"The Legend of Pleasure Beach." ''Bridgeport Library''. Bridgeport Public Library, 9 Feb 2011. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://bportlibrary.org/hc/entertainment/the-legend-of-pleasure-beach/>.</ref>

Bridgeport, CT.<ref name="pleasurebeachplan">''Feasibility Study and Master Plan for Pleasure Beach Park''. City of Bridgeport, 2011. 37. Web. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/63235611/Pleasure-Beach-Planning-Bridgeport-CT-Community-Meeting-05-09-2011>.</ref>

Birdnote.<ref name="pbnote">"Patrick Comins & the Important Bird Area at Long Beach West in Connecticut." ''BirdNote''. BirdNote, n.d. Web. 19 Apr 2012. <http://www.birdnote.org/birdnote.cfm?id=1845>.</ref>